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Dialysis Methods for Protein Research
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In working with proteins and nucleic acids, it is often necessary to eliminate small molecular weight substances such as reducing agents [dithiothreitol (DTT), 2-mercaptoethanol (BME)], non-reacted crosslinking or labeling reagents (sulfo-SMCC, biotin) or preservatives (sodium azide, thimerosol) that might interfere with a subsequent step in the experimental procedure. Similarly, it is often desirable to exchange the protein sample into a different buffer system for downstream application such as electrophoresis, ion exchange or affinity chromatography. Dialysis is one method for accomplishing both contaminant removal and buffer exchange for macromolecular samples such as proteins.
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Related literature...
High-Performance Dialysis and Desalting Technical Handbook
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Introduction
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Dialysis is a separation technique that facilitates the removal of small, unwanted compounds from macromolecules in solution by selective and passive diffusion through a semi-permeable membrane. A sample and a buffer solution (called the dialysate, usually 200 to 500 times the volume of the sample) are placed on opposite sides of the membrane. Sample molecules that are larger than the membrane-pores are retained on the sample side of the membrane, but small molecules and buffer salts pass freely through the membrane, reducing the concentration of those molecules in the sample. Changing the dialysate buffer removes the small molecules that are no longer in the sample and allows more contaminants to diffuse into the dialysate. In this way, the concentration of small contaminants within the sample can be decreased to acceptable or negligible levels.
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| How dialysis membranes work. A dialysis membrane is a semi-permeable film (usually a sheet of regenerated cellulose) containing various sized pores. Molecules larger than the pores cannot pass through the membrane but small molecules can do so freely. In this manner, dialysis may be used to perform purification or buffer exchange for samples containing macromolecules. |
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Dialysis Tubing, Cassettes, Flasks and Other Devices
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Principles of Diffusion
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Dialysis works by diffusion, a process that results from the thermal, random movement of molecules in solution and leads to the net movement from areas of higher to lower concentration (until an equilibrium is reached). In dialysis, unwanted molecules inside a sample-chamber diffuse through a semi-permeable membrane into a second chamber of liquid or dialysate. Because large molecules can not pass through the pores of the membrane, they will remain in the sample chamber. By contrast, the small molecules will freely diffuse across the membrane and obtain equilibrium across the entire solution volume, effectively reducing the concentration of those small molecules within the sample.
If dialysis is allowed to proceed to equilibrium before each change of dialysate buffer, the substances retained by the membrane are purified by a factor equal to the ratio of buffer volume to sample volume. For example, when dialyzing 1mL of sample against 200mL of dialysis buffer, the concentration of unwanted dialyzable substances will be decreased 200-fold when equilibrium is attained. Following two additional buffer changes of 200mL each, the contaminant level in the sample will be reduced by a factor of 8 x 10^6 (200 x 200 x 200). If the original sample contained 100mM DTT, this would potentially be decreased in the sample to approximately 12.5nM following the three complete cycles. If a further decrease in concentration is desired, the dialysis process can be continued with additional volumes of dialysate.
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Dialysis Products Selection Guide
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Dialysis Tubing, Cassettes, Flasks and Other Devices
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Dialysis Performance
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The time required to accomplish dialysis is determined by factors that affect the rate of diffusion of a molecule. Because heat affects the thermodynamics of molecules, increasing temperature speeds diffusion. Therefore, dialysis will proceed faster at room temperature than at 4°C. In selecting the most appropriate temperature, it is important to take into account the thermal stability of the molecule of interest. The rate of diffusion is also directly proportional to the concentration of a molecule, while inversely proportional to its molecular weight. As the concentration of a molecule increases, so does the probability that one of those molecules will contact the dialysis membrane and then diffuse across to the other side. However, as a molecule's molecular weight increases, the rate of movement in solution decreases along with the chance of diffusion through the membrane - even if it the molecule is small enough to pass through the pores.
The rate of dialysis is also directly proportional to the surface area of the membrane and inversely proportional to its thickness. Membranes normally used for laboratory dialysis applications range from 0.5-1.2 mils (12-30µm) thick, providing good diffusion rate as well as structural integrity. While membrane thickness is not a variable that is easily modified, the surface area usually is. The flatter a sample can be spread over a membrane surface, the faster will be its dialysis because all molecules in the sample will be closer to the membrane and a higher proportion of them will be in direct contact with the membrane at any instant. High-performance dialysis products, such as Thermo Scientific Slide-A-Lyzer Dialysis Cassettes and MINI Dialysis Units, are designed to maximize surface area-to-volume ratios (within practical limits) for different volumes of sample.
Stirring the buffer during the dialysis process also increases the diffusion rate. As low molecular weight compounds exit through the pores on the outer side of the membrane, they form a microenvironment termed a Nernst diffusion layer. In this layer, which is approximately 200-300 molecules thick, the low molecular weight compounds are at a higher concentration in relation to the rest of the dialysate. This high local concentration effectively slows the rate of dialysis because molecules can randomly re-enter the dialysis membrane pores and return to the sample. Stirring efficiently breaks up the macroenvironment outside the Nernst layer, helping to maintain the concentration differential needed to drive the diffusion process.
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Tech Tip #20: Dialysis: an overview
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Dialysis Tubing, Cassettes, Flasks and Other Devices
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Membrane Molecular Weight Cut-off
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The average or maximum pore size of a dialysis membrane determines the molecular-weight cutoff (MWCO) of the molecules that can diffuse across it. Understanding the significance of molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) determinations and how they are characterized will allow selection of the best membrane for a particular dialysis application. A membrane with the proper MWCO will prevent loss of proteins of interest and ensure adequate removal of contaminants. Likewise, understanding this concept may explain unanticipated results such as loss of a protein or incomplete contaminant removal.
The MWCO determination for dialysis membranes has been extensively performed with the rotating batch dialysis cell. In the rotating batch cell method, the membrane to be characterized is held in place between two circular cavities of equal size. One side of the cell is partially filled with a solution containing a molecular weight standard (molecule of known molecular weight). The other side is filled with an equal volume of buffer or saline. The solutions are mixed and kept in contact with the membrane by rotating the cell at a constant speed. The dialysis cell is rotated for a fixed period of time and then the concentration of the molecular weight standard in the solutions on both sides of the membrane is measured and the percent retention of the standard is determined. The MWCO is determined by the retention pattern of the known standards. Traditionally, MWCO is assigned based on 90% retention of a standard with that molecular weight. Thus, a dialysis membrane with a 100K MWCO would retain 90% of the proteins having a molecular mass of 100kDa.
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| Determining the molecular weight cut-off of dialysis membranes using the rotating batch dialysis cell. To determine the molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of dialysis membranes, a test membrane is sandwiched between to fluid chambers in the rotating dialysis cell. One chamber is partially filled with a solution containing a molecular weight standard. The other fluid chamber is filled with the same total volume, but without the standard. Following rotation at a constant speed for a fixed period of time, the amount of molecular weight standard is measured in both chambers. The smallest standard in which 90% in the initial concentration is retained in the fill chamber is specified as the MWCO of that membrane. |
For practical use, a membrane with a MWCO of 1/3 the molecular weight of the molecule of interest is chosen to ensure good sample recovery. However, the membrane MWCO should also be large enough to facilitate efficient separation of the small molecules that need to be removed. A MWCO of approximately 10K is frequently used to remove small molecular weight contaminants from globular protein samples. Dialysis is not intended as a method of separation for molecules of similar molecular weight. It is also important to consider the buffer system, as pH and other factors can alter the size, three-dimensional shape and charge of proteins and thus affect their ability to pass through the pores of the membrane.
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Dialysis Products Selection Guide
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Dialysis Tubing, Cassettes, Flasks and Other Devices
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Membrane Handling
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The membranes most commonly used for laboratory dialysis are made of regenerated cellulose, manufactured using either the cuprammonium or Viscose process. For both of these methods, dissolved cellulose is extruded as tubing or sheets and then dried. Glycerol is frequently added as a humectant to prevent cracking during drying and to help maintain desired pore structure. Pores range from 15-50 Angstroms for 3.5K, 7K and 10K MWCO membranes. The membranes have a symmetrical pore structure that allows small molecules to migrate across them in either direction. Regenerated cellulose is hydrophilic and easily saturated in buffer to provide a homogeneous medium for dialysis in aqueous solutes. Membrane diffusion capacity is directly related to hydrophilicity.
The manufacturing process for regenerated cellulose membranes results in the presence of certain low-level "contaminants" in the final product; for certain experiments, the possible affects of these components on samples should be considered. The main contaminants are sulfur compounds (0.01-0.3%), heavy metals (trace) and glycerol (0-21%). Most of these small compounds diffuse out of the membrane during the dialysis process. Therefore, if it is suspected that these substances might interfere with the function of the molecule of interest, pre-dialyze the membrane or device ultrapure water or buffer for 30 minutes before adding the sample.
Regenerated cellulose exhibits minimal protein adsorption. While some protein adsorption may occur with any sample, more concentrated samples will result in a lower percentage of total protein being lost. Regenerated cellulose membranes also have better chemical compatibility and heat stability than membranes made from cellulose acetate (cellulose ester). They are more resistant to organic solvents and weak or dilute acids, and they are compatible with the pH range and buffer salts that are commonly used in protein and molecular biology applications.
All cellulose membranes are sensitive to cellulase enzyme activity. Standard concentrations of antimicrobial inhibitors (e.g., 0.05% sodium azide) can be added to prevent growth of cellulolytic microorganisms if the membranes are stored wet for long periods of time before use. Membranes should not be allowed to dry out after wetting unless they are reglycerinated because drying can alter (decrease) the pore size. Avoid closing the ends of dialysis tubing by tying (knotting) because the tension can increase the pore size and MWCO near the tie. Avoid touching membrane with bare hands to prevent possible enzymatic and microbial contamination. Pre-assembled devices, such as the Slide-A-Lyzer Dialysis Cassettes, eliminate the need to manipulate the membrane during setup and sample handling.
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Dialysis Products Selection Guide
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Dialysis Tubing, Cassettes, Flasks and Other Devices
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Dialysis Procedure
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It is the difference in the composition of sample and dialysis buffer solutions that creates the concentration-differential across the membrane that drives the dialysis process. Using a high buffer-to-sample volume-ratio helps to maintain the concentration gradient. The number of dialysate buffer changes and the dialysis time also affect the outcome achieved in dialysis. Because of the variables associated with each sample, a universal dialysis procedure for all applications cannot be provided, only general guidelines. Similarly, the process completion-point is somewhat subjective. The goal is to reduce the concentration of low molecular weight compounds to a level that will not interfere with subsequent steps in the experiment.
A typical dialysis procedure for protein samples is as follows:
- Pre-wet or prepare the membrane according to instructions.
- Load sample into dialysis tubing or device.
- Dialyze for 1 to 2 hours at room temperature.
- Change the dialysis buffer and dialyze for another 1 to 2 hours.
- Change the dialysis buffer and dialyze overnight at 4°C.
Note: For best results, use a volume of dialysis buffer (dialysate) that is at least 200-fold greater than the sample volume. |
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BupH Dry Blend Buffer Packs
Preformulated Concentrated Buffers
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Protein Concentration using Dialysis Membranes
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Many samples will take on water or buffer during the dialysis process due to osmotic pressure. This occurs frequently with samples that have a high starting salt concentration or if a component of the sample is hygroscopic. In the case of high starting salt concentration, osmosis causes water to enter the sample faster than buffer salts within the sample are able to diffuse out, resulting in the swelling of the sample within the dialysis sample compartment. When this occurs, it may be desirable to return the sample to its original concentration, or to decrease the sample volume even further.
To concentrate the sample, dialysis membrane containing the sample is placed in a small plastic bag containing a solution of hygroscopic compound instead of ordinary dialysate. To avoid contamination of the sample, the hygroscopic compound must be composed of molecules that are larger than the pore size of the dialysis tubing (e.g., high-molecular weight polyethylene glycol). With this set-up, concentration occurs upon diffusion of the water (osmosis) and other small molecules out of the sample and into the hygroscopic solution.
Another method to concentrate samples is through forced dialysis. Vacuum is applied to a sample contained within a dialysis membrane; this effectively "pulls" water, buffer salts and other low-MW compounds out of the dialysis sample-chamber. Another form of diafiltration involves "pushing" samples through a dialysis membrane by centrifugal force; this is the basis for protein concentrators, which have become popular in recent years.
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Slide-A-Lyzer Concentrating Solution
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